DNA double-strand break (DSB) repair is a crucial process for the maintenance of genomic stability after exposure to ionizing radiation (IR) and other exogenous and endogenous factors. The cellular response to DSBs, including phosphorylation of histones (e.g. H2AX) and accumulation of signal proteins (e.g. pATM and 53BP1) at the break sites, depends on cell type-specific differences, with chromatin organization representing one important factor influencing DSB repair.
In this work, the DNA damage signaling as well as the DSB repair was analyzed after IR within the murine retina, as a simple organized tissue with a low number of cell types. Furthermore, rod photoreceptors (rods) as the predominant cell type of the murine retina exhibit a unique chromatin structure with a single central heterochromatin cluster which arises by fusion of several smaller clusters during postnatal development. Strikingly, rods of wildtype (wt)-mice exhibited a pronounced DSB repair defect after IR, detected by H2AX foci analysis and pulsfeld gel electrophoresis, which could neither be observed within other cells of the adult retina, brain or kidney, nor in still undifferentiated rod progenitors of postnatal mice (P4).
An analysis of the initial DNA damage signaling within the different retinal cell types revealed an inefficient accumulation of pATM and 53BP1 at the sides of DSBs within repair-impaired rods. Interestingly, this inefficient accumulation of pATM and 53BP1 could also be observed in repair-proficient cone-photoreceptors (cones) and bipolar cells, which exhibit a normal chromatin structure. However, despite the inefficient accumulation of pATM at the sides of DSBs in these cells, DNA-PK deficient mice (SCID-mice) show robust H2AX phosphorylation after IR in the whole retina. This confirms that pATM is present and functional in all cell types, since phosphorylation of H2AX can only be carried out by ATM or DNA-PK in resting neuronal cells. Additional irradiation experiments with ATM-deficient mice (AT-mice) show a prominent DSB repair defect comparable to that of rods in wt-mice. This is ascribed to unrepaired heterochromatic DSBs due to the missing phosphorylation of the heterochromatin building factor KAP1 by ATM and the subsequent lack of chromatin relaxation. Further analysis showed a comparable lack of KAP1 phosphorylation within wt rods after IR. In contrast, cones and bipolar cells, which both showed an inefficient accumulation of pATM at the sites of DSBs, but a normal DSB repair, exhibited robust KAP1 phosphorylation. Thus, the striking DSB repair defect within rods of adult mice closely correlates with the unique chromatin structure as well as the missing phosphorylation of KAP1.
Earlier work demonstrates that radiation induced DSBs can move within chromatin. For this reason the transport of IR-induced DSBs after heavy ion irradiation was investigated in rods of wt-mice. Thereby, a rapid transport of DSBs could be detected within few minutes after irradiation. Furthermore, the localization of IR-induced H2AX foci within chromatin of wt-rods was studied during repair. Thereby the contribution of ATM and DNA-PK to the phosphorylation of H2AX within the different chromatin compartments was analyzed. By using in vivo irradiation of WT-, AT- and SCID mice as well as ATM- or DNA-PK inhibitor treated retinal explants, a faster phosphorylation of H2AX within euchromatin and facultative heterochromatin was revealed, when compared to constitutive heterochromatin. Furthermore, ATM was identified as the faster kinase, phosphorylating H2AX exclusively within the first few minutes after irradiation. At later time points ATM and DNA-PK both phosphorylate H2AX with the exception of the constitutive heterochromatin, where H2AX was nearly exclusively phosphorylated by DNA-PK.
To summarize, during this work the murine retina was established as a new model for the analysis of radiation-induced DSBs in vivo. Since this tissue represents a comparably simple organized part of the central nervous system that can be isolated very fast after IR, it might become a suitable model to gain better insights in the radiation response of different cell types of the brain. Furthermore, with highly heterochromatic rods as a predominant cell type, it offers a unique possibility to study the mechanisms of mammalian DSB repair within different compartments of chromatin, which was shown in this work for the first time to affect DSB repair in vivo.
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